India From Intensive Farming to Crop Diversification: Transition and Trajectories
What is the state of crop diversification in South Asia?
In South Asia, the food systems and food environments are transforming rapidly, and this is attributed to rapid urbanization, globalization, economic development, technological advancement, and changing agriculture production systems (Pingali et al., 2019). The transformation is significant, particularly in India, with the advent of the green revolution, which transformed India from a ‘ship to mouth’ situation to a food surplus country with a significant increase in area and production of starchy cereals. Consequently, a decrease in crop diversity over a period, over-exploitation of natural resources, and indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers resulted in a decline in yield. India’s historic policy focus has been food self-sufficiency, food security, and yield intensification, which delivered yield growth and employment. However, at significant health, environmental, and fiscal costs, productivity growth was enabled primarily through technology, irrigation, mechanization, and significant application of synthetic inputs. As a result of increased orientation toward commercial farming, crop diversity has declined significantly over a period.
Some of the northwestern states have eroded significant crop diversity in the past. For instance, in Punjab, in 2018-19 the gross cropped area of Paddy and Wheat increased to 84.6% from 32% in 1960-61. The increased area under Paddy and Wheat in place of pulses, maize, bajra, chana, masur, mustard, sunflower, sugarcane, groundnut etc., resulted in a significant decline in the area of mentioned crops. Similarly, Tamil Nadu state has lost much of its iron and protein-rich rice varieties, also, the rice varieties such as Kattuyanam, Poongkar, and Kuzhiyadichan which were flood-resistant and were grown under saline and alkaline soil conditions, have almost disappeared. A similar situation is seen in many other states which are on the same path.
Is there a nexus between crop diversification and nutritional outcomes?
The crop diversification transition in India is generally viewed as a shift from traditionally grown diverse, less remunerative cereal crops to more remunerative commercial crops (Khanam et al., 2018). Crop diversity is fundamental and critical to the fulfillment of basic human needs like food, fiber, fodder, and fuel etc., and the loss of crop diversity has serious implications for economic, and social development and the environment. There is a strong linkage between agriculture and the health & nutrition of communities, especially in rural areas where a significant population is undernourished (Nandi et al., 2021). Crop diversity is a key to reducing hunger, and malnutrition in India, but the country suffered a massive crop diversity loss after the green revolution, and it eroded much of the native crops. Therefore, crop diversity must be managed and conserved for sustainable food production, food, and nutritional security.
India is not yet free from hunger and this is no less alarming. The Food and Agriculture Organization report 2020 highlighted that 189.2 million people are undernourished in the country. Further, the recently developed indicator called the Prevalence of Moderate and Severe Food Insecurity (PMSFI) reveals that about 430 million people faced moderate to severe food insecurity in India in 2019. Further, some estimates predict that in the next 25 years, land degradation alone could increase food prices by over 30 percent. Further, 76 percent of rural Indians (the majority of whom are farmers) can’t afford a nutritious diet. Similarly, 3 billion people cannot afford a healthy diet globally. Global food price rises are one of the important reasons. Farmers, who are at the basis of food systems and are part of the world’s most vulnerable communities, will bear the pressure of these crises.
Fields on fire: Navigating the perils of intensive farming and fertilizer reliance
Similarly, increased dependency on chemical fertilizers, declining soil health and ground water resources are potential threats to food security in the country.
Figure 1: Source: Fertilizer Ministry budget estimate
India is a leading importer of fertilizers for its huge agriculture sector, during the fiscal year 2020, India imported fertilizers worth over 528 billion Indian rupees, and the quantity of fertilizer imported increases year after year. This largely constitutes manufactured fertilizers rather than crude ones. The fertilizer subsidy given during 2021-22 was Rs 1.62 trillion and the subsidy expenses surged to a record Rs 2.55 trillion in 2022-23 because of a sharp spike in global prices caused by supply chain disruptions due to the Russia-Ukraine conflict and also to some extent COVID-19 induced disruptions the preceding year. Imported urea prices have risen by more than 145 percent to $930/ton in April 2022 from $380/ton a year ago.
It would be consecutively three years in 2022-23 that the annual budget spending on fertilizer subsidy will be more than the Rs one trillion mark, against a lower range of about 70,000 to 80,000 crore in the past few years. Future prices of imported fertilizers could depend on a crisis like the Russia-Ukraine war and COVID-19 pandemic-like situations.
Figure 2: Source: Fertilizer Ministry budget estimate
However, the question is how long is the country is going to depend on imported fertilizers even after achieving self-sufficiency on several crop production fronts? Is there an alternative option to do agriculture by reducing fertilizers ‘gradually’ which not only have huge economic implications but environmental implications too that already we are witnessing?
From fertile to feeble: The alarming decline of soil health
Soils are living entities and are full of lives. Soil is the most complex ecosystem and it provides humans with 98.8 percent of our food. Besides, soils provide a range of ecosystem services (Kopittke et al., 2019). But soil is a finite resource, and intensification of agricultural production with indiscriminate use of chemical fertilizers, removal of crop biomassues, and burning of crop residues place unprecedented pressure on soils resulting in degrading soils unsustainably that ultimately affecting the health of its citizens. The degradation will decrease the ability of soils to produce food in the long run. Per the Soil Health Survey of India 2019-20, 55, 42 and 44 percent of the country’s soils are deficient in Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Soil Organic Carbon (SOC) respectively. The SOC content is an important indicator of soil health and it is 2.5 percent to 3.0 percent by weight in the root zone of the top 20 cm. But the SOC in most cultivable land (particularly north-west India) is often less than 0.5 percent, and it is a serious concern that leads to crop yield stagnation. So what would be the best practices to restore soil health and grow food sustainably?
Figure 3: Soil Organic Carbon Status in Cycle II of SHC Scheme: 2017-19. Source: Soil Health Card Portal, Ministry of Agriculture & Farmers Welfare, Government of India.
Based on the data from the Soil Health Card scheme of cycle II clearly shows a significant portion of samples tested are either very low or low in soil carbon. This is especially evident in the case of Punjab and Haryana. The major factor attributed to the decline in soil carbon is due to imbalanced fertilizer use, particularly skewed NPK ratios that have led to the degradation of soil health (NAAS, 2018). This is a creeping disaster, as over half of India’s soil is degraded. The only solution is a radical reimagining of how farming is done in this country to avert disaster.
Sinking reserves, rising risks: Groundwater depletion as a looming threat to our food security
Groundwater is an important resource for food security, and India is the world’s biggest user of groundwater for agriculture accounting for 60 percent of irrigation supplies. India is the second-largest producer of Rice, Wheat, and Lentils in the world, account around 10 percent of the world’s production with around 600 million farmers dependent on agriculture as the main source of livelihood. Any significant decline in production not only affects Indian agriculture but also impends the food security of other countries in South Asia and the world. Depletion in groundwater may cause a severe decline in crop production in the near future, by up to 20 percent across the country and up to 68 percent in regions projected to have low future groundwater availability in 2025 (Jain et al., 2021). Unsustainable use of groundwater for irrigation and home use is leading to depletion, the study mentioned. The average groundwater level changed during 2009 to 19 across different states of India is shown below. Increasing stress on the water resources of the country would need realignment and rethinking of policies.
Figure 4: Source: India Water Resources Information System (Government of India)
Is there a way out of the current crisis?
Yes, but it requires realignment and rethinking of practices and policies about how farming is being done. It is critical to build much more resilient food systems producing nutritious and affordable food while adopting sustainable practices that protect farmers and the planet. Therefore, the country must take repair and preventive measures to improve its crop diversity, minimize high dependency on chemical fertilizer, conserve water and soil resources to reduce hunger and malnutrition through sustainable food production in the country. Let us discuss some of the possibilities.
‘Seeds of Change: Cultivating a Gradual Transition from Intensive to Sustainable Farming’
“India can switch 30% of agri acreage to non-chemical farming by 2030”
The food we produce, consume, trade, transport, store and sell is the basic connecting thread between people, prosperity, and the planet. We, therefore, need ‘resource-smart’ food systems (Westhoek et al., 2016). Intensive farming has created several inadequacies including environmental, economic, and health impacts over the period. It was easy to take forward chemical farming, but it is very difficult to take forward sustainable farming in the current situation where our soil health deteriorated inequitably. Therefore, there is a need for adopting an alternative to intensive farming that must grow food sustainably. Food production is growing by 3 to 3.25 percent annually in the last several years, while domestic demand is growing by 2 to 2.25 percent/annum. Besides, there is great scope to plug the food losses and waste that is happening. In this situation, the country can set aside around 10 to 15 percent cultivable area for any form of sustainable farming methods with immediate effect. Even if 30-35 percent yield penalty is observed during the initial years of conversion from an intensive farming system to a sustainable farming system that may not pose a great threat to the food security of the country. As currently the country is exporting around seven percent of production worth around six billion dollars per annum, that may be treated as trade-off.
Diverse Fields, Brighter Futures: Crop diversification as the next agricultural revolution
In recent years crop diversification has emerged as a compelling avenue for enhancing agricultural productivity, risk mitigation, improved nutrition, and sustainable farming practices. After the first National Conference of Chief Secretaries at Dharamshala (India), chaired by Prime minister Narendara Modi, various policies/schemes were launched by the state governments in response to prime minister’s emphasis on crop diversification to encourage farmers to diversify their crop portfolios (Figure 5) with significant allocation of budget to promote crop diversification.
Similar initiatives have been started in Bangladesh, Nepal and other south Asian countries to promote crop diversification during the recent past. These policies and schemes are important steps towards addressing inadequacies that intensive farming has created on agriculture and food systems over the years.
Figure 5: Source: Author’s compilation from various public sources.
Evidence based policies
Nonetheless, a critical aspect to ponder upon is the evidence-based nature of these policies. It raises questions about the type and extent of research undertaken to formulate such guidelines. Implementing crop diversification is a complex task; it is not a universally applicable strategy and requires careful consideration of the local context. In countries such as India, Nepal, and Bangladesh, the average landholding is quite small (less than 1 hectare), coupled with diverse weather conditions. Encouraging smallholders in these regions to diversify their crops could potentially lead to negative consequences. They might lose the benefits derived from specialized and economically profitable crops, thereby forfeiting a competitive edge (Sibhatu & Qaim, 2018). Additionally, in developing nations, smallholders often face limited access to technologies and extension services. The diverse agro-climatic and soil biophysical conditions, along with fragmented markets, can further obstruct the diversification of farm production for these households production (Hirvonen & Hoddinott, 2017).
To address these challenges, it is crucial to implement on-site and on-farm trials complemented by participatory action research. This approach allows farmers to actively engage in experimenting with crop diversification, tailored to suit the specific needs and conditions of their region, thereby providing concrete evidence to inform policy decisions. It is critical to move from one dimensional, quantitative assessments, to multi-criteria assessments that incorporate qualitative approaches that emphasise stakeholder interaction, evaluation by experts and peers, and a focus on small spatial scales such as the community level, to build an empirical basis for indicators that are useful at both local and higher spatial scales (Williges et al., 2017). Moreover, ensuring the availability of crop suitability maps, necessary infrastructure, extension services, and market development, along with enhancing farmers’ capabilities in agronomic practices and new crop management techniques, are vital steps. These efforts will collectively contribute to the successful implementation of crop diversification strategies, ultimately leading to the achievement of the desired outcomes.
Trailblazing the fields: Focusing on crop diversification research
Many ongoing projects (including TAFSSA, RUPANTAR among others) in South Asia are well placed in the region, conducting extensive on-site and on-farm trials to promote crop diversification and understand the processes of change that can support it. In addition, we are engaging in participatory action research to uncover the most viable options for crop and livelihood diversification, understand the socioeconomic factors impacting farmers, and identify the potential opportunities and challenges associated with the crop and livelihood diversification efforts among the famers. Recently, our team of researchers completed two comprehensive surveys, engaging with 2,500 farmers across the Eastern Gangetic Plains (EGP), yielding valuable data that will inform future strategies for crop diversification in the region. Furthermore, our ongoing investigations into the political economy of policies for crop diversification in Bangladesh are generating novel insights, further contributing to the development of effective and efficient crop diversification projects and sustainable agricultural policies.
Views are personal.
References
Hirvonen, K., & Hoddinott, J. (2017). Agricultural production and children’s diets: Evidence from rural Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics, 48(4), 469–480.
Jain, M., Fishman, R., Mondal, P., Galford, G. L., Bhattarai, N., Naeem, S., Lall, U., Balwinder-Singh, & DeFries, R. S. (2021). Groundwater depletion will reduce cropping intensity in India. Science Advances, 7(9), eabd2849.
Khanam, R., Bhaduri, D., & Nayak, A. K. (2018). Crop diversification: An important way-out for doubling farmers’ income. Indian Farming, 68(1), Article 1. http://epubs.icar.org.in/ejournal/index.php/IndFarm/article/view/80438
Kopittke, P. M., Menzies, N. W., Wang, P., McKenna, B. A., & Lombi, E. (2019). Soil and the intensification of agriculture for global food security. Environment International, 132, 105078.
Nandi, R., Nedumaran, S., & Ravula, P. (2021). The interplay between food market access and farm household dietary diversity in low and middle income countries: A systematic review of literature. Global Food Security, 28, 100484.
Pingali, P., Aiyar, A., Abraham, M., & Rahman, A. (2019). Diet diversity and the declining importance of staple grains. In Transforming Food Systems for a Rising India (pp. 73–91). Springer.
Sibhatu, K. T., & Qaim, M. (2018). Review: Meta-analysis of the association between production diversity, diets, and nutrition in smallholder farm households. Food Policy, 77, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2018.04.013
Westhoek, H., Ingram, J., van Berkum, S., & Hajer, M. (2016). Food systems and natural resources. United Nations Environment Program.
Williges, K., Mechler, R., Bowyer, P., & Balkovic, J. (2017). Towards an assessment of adaptive capacity of the European agricultural sector to droughts. Climate Services, 7, 47–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cliser.2016.10.003
[1] Financial express: India Can switch 30% of agri acreage to non-chemical farming by 2030.